Minimally invasive optical sensors for microwave-electric-field exposure measurements

The measurement of microwave electric-field (E-field) exposure is an ever-evolving subject that has recently led the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection to change its recommendations. With frequencies increasing toward terahertz (THz), stimulated by 5G deployment, the measurement specifications reveal ever more demanding challenges in terms of bandwidth (BW) and miniaturization. We propose a focus on minimally invasive E-field sensors, which are crucial for the in situ and near-field characterization of E-fields both in harsh environments such as plasmas and in the vicinity of emitters. We browse the large varieties of measurement devices, among which the electro-optic (EO) probes stand out for their potential of high BWup to THz, minimal invasiveness, and ability of vector measurements. We describe and compare the three main categories of EO sensors, from bulk systems to nanoprobes. First, we show how bulk-sensors have evolved toward attractive fibered systems that are advantageously employed in plasmas, resonance magnetic imagings chambers or for radiation-pattern imaging up to THz frequencies. Then we describe how the integration of waveguides helps to gain robustness, lateral resolution, and sensitivity. The third part is dedicated to the ultra-miniaturization of components allowing ultimate steps toward electromagnetic invisibility. This review aims at pointing out the recent evolutions over the past 10 years, with a highlight on the specificities of each photonic architecture. It also shows the way to future multi-physics and multi-arrays smart sensing platforms. (C) The Authors. Published by SPIE under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License.