Societal changes and the evolution of the Iron Economy from Hallstatt D to La Tene D in north-eastern France

The Iron Ages in north-western Europe saw the gradual spread and adoption of iron, followed by a succession of major innovations in its production techniques. Object manufacturing processes became more democratic, while the consumption of objects intensified and reached all social strata. The control of metallurgy is repeatedly seen as one of the driving forces behind the emergence of power centres. We propose to analyse this postulate in the light of a renewed assessment of our knowledge of iron metallurgy in a large area in north-eastern France. This includes the areas where the elites of the late Hallstatt and early La Tene, show their ostentation in their weaponry and the flourishing Celtic art of middle La Tene period. At the end of the Iron Age, new forms of the ``proto-state'' phenomenon and the first urban centres characterise this area. During Hallstatt D - La Tene A, most workshops can be classified according to very variable levels of production in relation to the smelting process. Ethnographic comparisons allow us to characterise their activities that range from a seasonal production by farmer-ironmakers to meet specific needs, to a large-scale production intended to supply medium- or long-distance markets. Several major production areas have been identified for this period: in the Mancelle region, in Puisaye and in the Berry region around Meunet-Planches (Indre). In contrast to the reducing of iron ore, the processing of transforming metal into objects is more broadly and evenly distributed. However, during Hallstatt D / La Tene A, a very surprising symmetry is visible between the smelting and forging activities. The smelting is located at the western edge of the north alpine area and in the western peripheral regions, whereas forging activities are mostly carried out in the north-alpine area. This particularity of the Hallstatt D - La Tene A is noteworthy as until the Roman period, the distribution of forging sites is uniform throughout northern France. The collapse of the princely residences and the emergence of simple chieftaincies do not seem to have led to a reorganization of the production of raw metal. Smelting workshops continue to exist and develop in the same areas, indicating that the old exchange networks continued to exist. Nevertheless, sporadic small-scale production either decreased or disappeared. In the case of forging activities, the development of ``craft farms'' and open agglomerations led to a sharp increase in production. Major changes take place during La Tene D. Smelting activities take place in centres where a new smelting technique develops. Work units become more structured and standardized, while there is little or no evidence of one-off production. The advent of the oppida with their artisanal districts marks a new increase in the volume of objects being produced. Forging activities are standardized with large quantities of waste. The functional interdependence between workshops on the same site is repeatedly highlighted. Indeed, the fact that some workshops acquire raw masses of metal while others work with highly purified metal implies that the former provide the latter with at least part of their raw material. Based on this thematic and chronological review, we propose to study the organisation of iron and steel production and their evolution during the Iron Age within a framework that uses descriptive criteria taken from previous studies in order to observe the evolution of smelting and forging during this period. These activities develop during the Hallstatt D - La Tene A as a ``corvee'' under the control of the elite. However, smelting process is simple, whereas forging requires proficiency and the mastering of expert techniques. This may be one of the possible explanations for the symmetrical spatial distribution of forging and smelting during Hallstatt D - La Tene A. Forging activities, which required much more know-how than smelting, were under a more direct control by the elites, who thus acquired glory and wealth. Raw metal is controlled through the control of exchange networks. During La Tene D, the production context evolves very differently for smelting and forging. Gallic elites still predominately control smelting, which leads to increased specialisation and a regrouping of the workshops. Conversely, the broadening of the range of skills and the multiplicity of organizational modes (ranging from ``dispersed workshop'' to ``community specialization'' and less commonly ``retained workshop'') in forging led to its recognition as a craft and the control of its own outlets.